Get facts about Chirk Castle here. Granite was quarried on site, and key features include a clock tower topped with turrets, ... making it the largest and strongest concentric castle, with one ring of defense inside another. There is no end to the historic features … Machicolations or ‘murder holes’ are one of the more key features included in castle building, providing defending soldiers with the ability to throw substances such as boiling water or pitch (and on occasion even parts of dead bodies) onto those attacking below. The Medieval castle: the ultimate in defence. This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. Defending a Castle. Uncover stories of kings and queens in English castles, and long-lost Scottish fortresses. Updated: Feb 22, 2018. ppt, 1 MB. A modern photograph of Warkworth Castle in Northumberland as it is today. Facts about Concentric Castles 1: The Shapes You’re in for a truly unique, unforgettable experience. Some were started but never finished, such as Beaumaris Castle in North Wales. He succeeded because he built nearly 700 castles in England and Wales with important defensive castle features in order to gain control over certain areas. Docks. Large castles may have two outer baileys; if in line they may form an outer and middle bailey. The late 13th century saw the development of elaborate concentric castles which had multiple layers of defence. Thanks for using Primary Facts, Orla. This timeline outlines key events/figures/trends of the Medieval period. Concentric Defences. Simple case. They were sometimes circular, but also square or other shapes. Concentric . Asked by Wiki User. Marshall created a huge stone castle in a classic Norman concentric design. Not many people know about Facts about Concentric Castles. Your email address will not be published. One of the best-known features of the castle is the colossal circular keep with domed roof - … Out of these cookies, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. Attacking and Defending a Castle – Lesson Plan. What are the key features to a concentric castle? Their layout depends both on the local topography and the level of fortification technology employed, ranging from simple enclosures to elaborate concentric defences. It was located at Belvoir. One of the most castle builders was James of St. George. In the Middle Ages in Europe, roughly 700 years ago, castles were extremely important to wealthy land owners and members of the nobility. Some of the projects weren’t even finished. These characteristics make them famous, in fact. )Concentric castles key features:-water filled ditches surrounding the building-an inner and outer wall-inner walls higher than outer walls-multiple gatehouses The concentric castle is two castles in one. Castle Siege Tactics Parts of a Castle. This building was called Bastille Saint-Antoine, The man made structure with walls and roofs are explained in Facts about Buildings. Read more. Castle Features. Any cookies that may not be particularly necessary for the website to function and is used specifically to collect user personal data via analytics, ads, other embedded contents are termed as non-necessary cookies. It was a masterpiece of design and is the 2nd largest castle in Britain after. But opting out of some of these cookies may have an effect on your browsing experience. Defending a Castle. Caernarvon Castle was built in the late 13th century to reinforce English rule over Wales. Required fields are marked *. Arundel castle is a concentric castle built at the end of the 11th century. some concentric castles didn't have a keep. This was around a third of the king’s annual income of £10,000 each year, making them a significant build. Other common features of these three stone castles are the absence of a … Concentric castles had other defensive features too, including circular towers which were difficult to undermine. This site is great for key facts it helped me out a ton ????? Have you ever imagined being a prince or princess? These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Facts about Canterbury Cathedral present the interesting information about the most famous Christian cathedral in England. See more ideas about Castle layout, Castle, Medieval castle. He travelled to the Middle East and introduced features he saw there, including different coloured stone bands and octagonal towers. These castles were also related to King Edward I. The Key Features And Parts Of A Castle Primary Facts Meval And Middle Ages History Timelines Concentric Castles ... of the design exploring concentric castles the high point in castle design concentric castles the high point in castle design concentric castles the high point in castle design. If attackers got past the outer wall and into the courtyard, they would still have another high wall and towers to face. They had two or three walls around the keep. The two castle walls in concentric designs were designed to be two separate obstacles in the path of any attacker. The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: A Social and Political History. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. In the mid 13th century, Concentric Castles were built with rings of stone walls inside each other. Start studying Concentric Castle. Even though concentric castles were easy to defend and sturdy, they weren’t cheap to construct. With this in mind, let's look at the major features of a castle… , Thankyou so much it helped me with my test to revise and i hope i get a high level but i probably will , thx for helping me with my last minute homework, thank a lot it help me out with my massive project!! Defence features were added to concentric castles design including the Drawbridge, Barbican, Portcullis, Gatehouse, Moat, Crenellations and Murder Holes; Concentric castles had round or polygonal shaped keeps or towers; Concentric castle walls were built at different heights and levels this website is great it gives you loads of help who ever made this primary facts website thxs , thx this website always helps me with my homework! A medieval lord, ensconced in his chambers in the keep, could sit by the fire confident that any attackers … Get facts about Chirk Castle here. for knights who … Krak des Chevaliers is a Ruined,,Concentric Crusader,Castle in Syria, one the most impressive Castles, Stately Homes, Chateaux Forts and Manor Houses for holidays, exclusive hire, tours, conferences, weddings, and visits. this was really helpful for homework and revision , thanks !! Castles also had to provide necessities for living (like sanitation, fresh water and cooking areas), which were especially important when the castle was under siege. In the 13th century, Caernarvon was built in order to support the rule of English over Wales. Even though it's a concentric castle now, it was origionally a motte and bailey castle. A Concentric Castle. Instead, each wrapping wall was considered individually and … The definition of a concentric castle is a “stone castle with at least two rings of outer walls, one inside the other”. Concentric castles are those which have two or more surrounding walls, with the inner one usually higher than the outer one. Castles can have more than one bailey. It was the 2nd biggest castle after Windsor. Bodiam Castle was built by … The best thing about the castles is the defend quality. Get facts about Chepstow Castle here. When were Concentric Castles first built? Although concentric castles were strong and easy to defend, they were also expensive to build. Learn how your comment data is processed. There were many earliest concentric castles back then. A concentric castle is a castle with two or more concentric curtain walls, such that the inner wall is higher than the outer and can be defended from it. Who doesn't love being #1? We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. thank james, thanks it really has helped me out with my project. One Castle, with a outer wall, inside a Keep, the Keep must be closed at time of war so that any ennemy incursion does not have access to the Keep. Concentric castles were a famous behemoth castle design along with stone-keep designs. Basically, there are two or more walls. They also had drawbridges to get over the moat as well as gatehouses at the en… Here are some other facts about Bodiam Castle. Even though the attackers are able to penetrate the outer walls, they should face the inner wall. This timeline outlines key events/figures/trends of the Medieval period 18th Century The Enlightenment era was a period in the history of the western world which was mostly about the movement towards science, philosophy, society and politics instead of religion. Including famous castles, crusader castles and cathar castles. An inner and outer wall Inner walls higher than outer walls Multiple gatehouses Beaumaris Castle was the perfect example of an unfinished concentric castle. The Key feature of a concentric defense is that any breach of the first line of defense will not compromise the second line of defense. A unique part is that the inner wall is bigger than the outer wall. I bet you picture a big, stone building, but that's not always what castles looked like. Welcome to the companion Web site to the NOVA program "Medieval Siege," scheduled for broadcast on January 24, 2006. The layout was square where the terrain permitted, or an irregular polygon where curtain walls of a spur castle followed the contours of a hill. Raised on an entirely new site, without earlier buildings to fetter its designer's creative genius, it is possibly the most sophisticated example of medieval military architecture in Britain. A concentric castle is unique as it includes 2 or more concentric shutter walls. (N.B. The attackers will get difficulties to enter the castles, for sure. The End of Castles Numerous of these Norman Castles in England ended up being … More. Castle designs also changed to keep up with improvements in siege technology. It was this urgent need for effective defensive structures that accelerated the building of castles in the Crusader States and led to the emergence of the Concentric Castle design.. Concentric castles were made up of two or more lines of concentric curtain walls – that is, all based around the same central point. This was around a third of the king’s annual income of £10,000 each year, making them a significant build. castle could be built very quickly, in some cases it only took a few days. Garrisons could only resist sieges if they were adequately supplied with food and drink, if … In the early 13th century King John added an outer circuit of stone walls and a dam to hold back a great lake, so creating one … These castles were the next big castle design after stone keep castles, and are mostly associated with King Edward I. They had battlements, moats, a drawbridge, a strongly defended entrance and arrow slits. What next? Introduction into the differences between Motte & Bailey and concentric castles. It is considered, Facts about Crumlin Road Jail talk about the former prison located in north Belfast, Northern Ireland. Hatshepsut: Facts About the Ancient Egyptian Pharoah, 13 Easy DIY Halloween Decorations – Ideas and Inspiration, 10 Creative DIY Star Wars Christmas Holiday Crafts, Christmas in Germany: Facts About German Christmas Traditions, TT Rockstars Tips: How to Get Better at Times Tables Rock Stars. Label the key features of a motte and bailey castle 3. Square keep castles were incredibly expensive, reaching costs of £3,000 in the cast of Rochester and £4,000 in the cast of the castle at Dover. Facts about Concentric Castles have blown your mind, right? Whats people lookup in this blog: Curtain Wall Castles Facts Do you want to know more about these things? the features of a motte and bailey castle; the features of a square stone keep and a shell keep castle; the features of a concentric castle Arundel castle is a concentric castle built at the end of the 11th century. James of St. George was one of the best castle builders of the time. There are many castles in Britain using this design like Harlech, Conway, Caernarvon, and Beaumaris. An inner wall built of thick stone with turrets positioned at intervals is then surrounded by an equally thick but lower stone wall. The castle was built in 1268. This means the castle can defend well against attacks. ... Below is the plan of Goodrich Castle. 1556-1603 Elizabethan era Believed to be the golden age in English history, the Elizabethan age changed the world greatly. At Beaumaris Castle in Anglesey, the first layer of defence was the moat, followed by an outer ward and then an inner … Locations of over 300 Castles. Concentric castles had walls built at different heights. This was the era where the first humanist thinking was embraced. Krak des Chevaliers is a Ruined,,Concentric Crusader,Castle in Syria, one the most impressive Castles, Stately Homes, Chateaux Forts and Manor Houses for holidays, exclusive hire, tours, conferences, weddings, and visits. It was constructed in the 14th century to defend the area against a possible invasion by France during the Hundred Years’ War. By the time concentric castles were being built around England and Wales, during the reign of Edward I, a number of features had become commonplace in castles. It is mandatory to procure user consent prior to running these cookies on your website. This allowed a unity of conception rare in medieval castles. What about living in one of their castles? Features_of_a_castle. One of the earliest concentric castles was the Crusaders’ Castle at Belvoir in Israel, dating from 1168. 1. With this in mind, let's look at the major features of a castle… Thanks so much for putting this up! The key parts of this castle are labelled and the purpose of these parts can be found below. The inner parts are always higher than others. A concentric castle is a much larger construction than Motte and bailey or Stone keep castles. Skills Developed: Knowledge and Understanding, Historical Terms, Change over Time. He got many inspirations there and he applied these on his works like octagonal towers. A bailey or ward in a fortification is a courtyard enclosed by a curtain wall.In particular, an early type of European castle was known as a motte-and-bailey. You can see those castles include circular towers, moats, battlements, arrow slits, and more. Bodiam Castle is located near the village of Robertsbridge in East Sussex. People often call, Let me show you a fortress located in Paris in Facts about Bastille. Beaumaris, begun in 1295, was the last and largest of the castles to be built by King Edward I in Wales. Other features included a moat, which is a deep, wide ditch filled with water surrounding the castle. Castles also had to provide necessities for living (like sanitation, fresh water and cooking areas), which were especially important when the castle was under siege. Many castles used this design in order to preserve both the aesthetic and defensive value of the building. Even though it's a concentric castle now, it was origionally a motte and bailey castle. Water-filled ditches, water gate allowed supplies to be brought in with ease and added layer of defence/escape route. Watch this short animation to discover how castles developed during the middle ages. Caerphilly Castle is one of the great medieval castles of western Europe. Baileys can be arranged in sequence along a hill (as in a spur castle), giving an upper bailey and lower bailey.They can also be nested one inside the other, as in a concentric castle, giving an outer bailey and inner bailey. This type of castle was easier  to defend. It is a double-skinned parallelogram surrounded by large-scale water defences. Model. Castle designs also changed to keep up with improvements in siege technology. Created: Aug 29, 2006. This castle has an outer wall with a gatehouse as in an ordinary castle, but it also has one or more inner walls with one or more gatehouses. At one time 2,000 people lived in the castle, known for its beautiful Medieval paintings. The walls are built at different levels so that archers on the inner walls can fire over the archers on the outer walls. The great innovation was that the outer wall was not used simply to reinforce the inner one. a “new castle” upon the river Tyne, while William himself marked the western limit of his authority during an expedition to Wales the following year, founding a new fortress in an old Roman fort called Cardiff. Early Fortifications Motte and bailey Castles Square Keeps Castle of William the Conqueror Concentric Castles Castles of Edward I. The idea behind a concentric castle is a castle within a castle. Well tower meant access to fresh water, even during siege. The outer wall is 110 metres square, surrounded by a moat 12 metres deep. If an attacker made it over the first wall, he was in real trouble. Answer. The castle was surrounded by 110 meters square outer walls and a deep moat. Glad we could help you with your projects. Including famous castles, crusader castles and cathar castles. A concentric castle is unique as it includes 2 or more concentric shutter walls. One of the earliest concentric castles was the Crusaders’ Castle at Belvoir in Israel, dating from 1168. Some of the most famous in Britain are Beaumaris Castle. Between walls was considered the 'death area' because archers waiting at the top could have easily aimed an arrow at the trapped person through a slit in the wall (castle walls were made with slits for just this purpose). Let's learn more about some of the oldest types of castles and how they went from wood to stone. He traveled to many places including the Middle East. The main feature of the concentric castle is its walls. A unique part is that the inner wall is bigger than the outer wall. At that time, there were around 2,100 people dwelled inside. Beaumaris Castle was the perfect example of an unfinished concentric castle. 0 1 2. Discover breathtaking castles throughout Europe. Even though concentric castles were easy to defend and sturdy, they weren’t cheap to construct. (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. These features generally characterize the stone keep castles of the first three-quarters of the 12th century. The model will have to be historically accurate and have the key features of the chosen castle. South Wales also had a famous concentric castle named Caerphilly. The shapes of the concentric castles are unique. Size: the model should not be larger than about 50cm squared. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of a motte and bailey castle. 4. If it’s about the shapes, most castles usually use square, circular, or many others. This means the castle can defend well against attacks. The common examples of buildings. One of them was the Castle of Crusaders in Israel. Edward I's castles in Wales were the best of all. The inner walls were higher than the outer walls, so defenders could fire down on attackers even if the outer wall had fallen. Concentric Castles were built with stone The dictionary Preview and details Files included (1) ppt, 1 MB. See also: Concentric Castles. See also: Concentric Castles. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. Concentric Castles. Secrets And Stories Of England S Dover Castle The World War 2 The curtain wall concentric castles the high point in castle design castle architecture walls the key features and parts of a castle primary facts. The End of Castles The first castle was established in the 1120s by the royal chamberlain, Geoffrey de Clinton, who built most of the Norman keep. Concentric castles were heavily defended. Building a concentric castle was phenomenally expensive and only the King and the powerful military orders, such as the Hospitallers and the Knights Templars could afford to build or maintain such a structure. Sidon Castle. Key facts. Cardiff Castle's interior is the result of unlimited wealth and a passion for ... the castle has impregnable concentric walls that were a key part of its highly defensive structure – which is probably why it was the last remaining Lancastrian stronghold in the Wars of the Roses. Discover some more castle facts by visiting our castles resources page. This website really helped! We have introduced a new history topic about castles. Facts about Concentric Castles 10: James of St. George I made this powerpoint to introduce the different features of castles. They are … The square keep is common to all three, as well as the entrance on the first floor. Concentric castles had other defensive features too, including circular towers which were difficult to undermine. Goodrich Castle is a Norman medieval castle ruin north of the village of Goodrich in Herefordshire, England, controlling a key location between Monmouth and Ross-on-Wye.It was praised by William Wordsworth as the "noblest ruin in Herefordshire" and is considered by historian Adrian Pettifer to be the "most splendid in the county, and one of the best examples of English military architecture". Apart from the walls, the castles also have other defensive structures as well. Your email address will not be published. Loading... Save for later. Here are some facts about concentric castles. Draw a motte and bailey castle 2. Caerphilly is unusual in being a late castle built on a virgin site. The foundation of castles, however, was far from being an exclusively royal affair. Explain the purpose of its key features 4. To discover the defensive features of motte and bailey, stone keep and concentric castles. They had battlements, moats, a drawbridge, a strongly defended entrance and arrow slits. Instead, inside the outer wall, there was another wall connecting a series of towers.) Upper, lower, middle, inner and outer wards or baileys. Sidon Castle. It was this urgent need for effective defensive structures that accelerated the building of castles in the Crusader States and led to the emergence of the Concentric Castle design.. Concentric castles were made up of two or more lines of concentric curtain walls – that is, all based around the same central point. Concentric castles represent one of the high points in Medieval military architecture. It is known for its 12 huge towers with 5, 6 and 10 sides. It also became one of the earliest concentric castles in Great Britain. About this resource. These cookies do not store any personal information. Several factors give it this pre-eminence - its immense size (1.2h), making it the largest in Britain after Windsor, its large-scale use of water for defence and the fact that it is the first truly concentric castle in Britain. Free. William had 8000 men to try and consolidate his power in England. Square keep castles were incredibly expensive, reaching costs of £3,000 in the cast of Rochester and £4,000 in the cast of the castle at Dover. Moreover, it took such a long time to construct such a castle, that often by the time it was completed, it wasn't needed any longer. Procure user consent prior to running these cookies may have two outer baileys if. Castles resemble one castle nested inside the outer wall is bigger than the outer wall had fallen English over! Circular towers, moats, a strongly defended entrance and arrow slits, other! Still have another high wall and into the differences between motte & bailey and concentric castles 1: shapes... Using this design in order concentric castle key features support the rule of English over Wales meant access to water... Visiting our castles resources page towers which were difficult to undermine of western Europe within a within... The foundation of castles and cathar castles blown your mind, let me show you a fortress located in in! This powerpoint to introduce the different features of castles wood to stone its beautiful Medieval paintings a. Concentric castles were easy to defend and sturdy, they should face inner. Key features of the earliest concentric castles in Wales no time to completely destroy both the walls towers. Referring to the middle East characterize the stone keep and concentric castles built! Bigger than the outer wall is 110 metres square, circular, or many others Crusaders in Israel dating. Should not be larger than about 50cm squared Bastille Saint-Antoine, the Elizabethan age changed the world greatly events/figures/trends... Of western Europe other, thus creating an inner wall is 110 square... Possible invasion by France during the Hundred Years ’ War ( 1567-1625 ) the archers on the topography. Time 2,000 people lived in the late 13th century to reinforce English rule Wales., right larger construction than motte and bailey castle associated with King Edward I in Wales were the best all. Well as the entrance on the first wall, there was another wall connecting a series towers! Is one of the concentric arrangement was more flexible than earlier plans castles is the 2nd largest castle Northumberland. Castle are labelled and the purpose of these parts can be described as `` a castle within a within! Scheduled for broadcast on January 24, 2006 allowed a unity of rare... Places including the middle East and introduced features he saw there, including different coloured bands. Queens in English castles, crusader castles and cathar castles it 's a concentric built! User consent prior to running these cookies on your website wall and of. January 24, 2006, 6 and 10 sides many others uses cookies to improve your experience while navigate. Towers to face updated: Feb 22, 2018. ppt, 1 MB ensures functionalities! Castle within a castle Years ’ War larger construction than motte and or..., unforgettable experience defend well against attacks imagined being a late castle built at different.. In Syria to fresh water, even during siege on his works like towers... He saw there, including circular towers which were difficult to undermine support! Aesthetic and defensive value of the projects weren ’ t cheap to.. Each year, making them a significant build for its 12 huge towers with,... Century to defend, they should face the inner one concentric arrangement was more flexible than earlier plans concentric... Other, thus creating an inner wall were started but never finished, such as beaumaris castle was in... To its various sides and 12 large towers., Terms, over... ’ castle at Belvoir in Israel, dating from 1168 flashcards, games, more. Though concentric castles 1: the model should not be larger than about 50cm squared Northumberland... That ensures basic functionalities and security features of a motte and bailey stone..., concentric castles resemble one castle nested inside the outer walls, they would still have another high and. Features included a moat 12 metres deep one of the most famous Cathedral... Talk about the former prison located in North Belfast, Northern Ireland and 12 towers! The last and largest of the Norman keep games, and long-lost Scottish.. And repeat visits inner one usually higher than the outer wall had fallen still have another wall! Invasion by France during the Hundred Years ’ War these features generally characterize stone. Power in England ended up being … more a motte and bailey castle dating! At intervals is then surrounded by large-scale water defences 's a concentric castle a... In England ended up being … more the courtyard, they should the. Also square or other shapes the foundation of castles Chevaliers in Syria a ton???. Against attacks if in line they may form an outer and middle bailey and concentric castles England! Stone wall and middle bailey support the rule of English over Wales 's learn more some. The different features of castles and how they went from wood to stone made this powerpoint to the! Each wrapping wall was not used simply to reinforce the inner wall is metres! Largest castle in Britain are beaumaris castle was surrounded by more than one wall castle walls concentric! Will get difficulties to enter the castles is the 2nd largest castle in a classic concentric. Castles first built he saw there, including different coloured stone bands octagonal. Clinton, who built most of the most famous Christian Cathedral in England ended up being more... Ease and added layer of defence/escape route this powerpoint to introduce the different features of,! They went from wood to stone let 's learn more about these things use third-party that. Have another high wall and towers of the 12th century if the outer one another wall connecting series! Cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website uses cookies to your! East and introduced features he saw there, including different coloured stone bands octagonal. Site is great for key facts it helped me out with my.! First wall, he was in real trouble this site is great for key it! Royal chamberlain, Geoffrey de Clinton, who built most of the concentric! Believed to be built by King Edward I 's castles in Wales possible! The Norman keep were sometimes circular, or many others your browsing.. Castles to be brought in with ease and added layer of defence/escape route,. Vocabulary, Terms, and more with flashcards, games, and with! During siege of thick stone with turrets positioned at intervals is then surrounded large-scale! The development of elaborate concentric defences I bet you picture a big, building!, Caernarvon, and more with flashcards, games, and are mostly associated with King Edward I introduced! Revision, thanks it really has helped me out a ton concentric castle key features?????. And long-lost Scottish fortresses historic features … 1 to keep up with improvements in siege technology 8000 to! Bailey, stone building, but that 's not always what castles looked like Crusaders in.... In some cases it only took a few days more about some of these Norman castles in England Wales. And security features of a castle… concentric castles features included a moat 12 metres.., for sure the Medieval period the King ’ s about the shapes, most castles use. Of any attacker looked like include circular towers, moats, battlements arrow... Roofs are explained in facts about concentric castles can be described as `` a castle ” water, even siege... Which were difficult to undermine including famous castles, crusader castles and cathar castles it was a! This in mind, right the entrance on the inner one facts it helped me out with project! World greatly inner wall however shorter than the outer walls, so could! Des Chevaliers in Syria walls built at the end of the time were sometimes circular, or many.. The earliest concentric castles resemble one castle nested inside the outer wall the two castle walls concentric... Have blown your mind, let 's look at the end of the three-quarters... Website uses cookies concentric castle key features improve your experience while you navigate through the website the option to of. Castle builders was james of St. George century to reinforce English rule Wales! Look at the end of castles, however, was far from an! France during the Hundred Years ’ War this allowed a unity of conception rare in Medieval castles of... Can fire over the concentric castle key features wall, there was another wall connecting series... And understand how you use this website with water surrounding the castle of Crusaders in Israel dating... Was built in order to preserve both the aesthetic and defensive value of the Norman.. Outer baileys ; if in line they may form an outer and middle bailey features too, different. Often call, let me show you a fortress located in North Wales introduce the different features of motte! Wall connecting a series of towers. the NOVA program `` Medieval siege, '' scheduled for broadcast on 24. Keep castles of western Europe castles ', with a central courtyard surrounded by a moat 12 deep. Picture a big, stone keep castles of the projects weren ’ t finished. Concentric shutter walls key facts it helped me out a ton???... Includes 2 or more surrounding walls, so defenders could fire down on attackers even if the outer wall 110! World greatly, with the inner wall is 110 metres square, surrounded by an equally thick lower.

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